Primitive(3pm)

NAME

PDL::Primitive - primitive operations for pdl

DESCRIPTION

This module provides some primitive and useful functions defined using PDL::PP and able to use the new indexing tricks.

See PDL::Indexing for how to use indices creatively. For explanation
of the signature format, see PDL::PP.

SYNOPSIS

# Pulls in PDL::Primitive, among other modules.
use PDL;

# Only pull in PDL::Primitive:
use PDL::Primitive;

FUNCTIONS

inner: Signature: (a(n); b(n); [o]c())
Inner product over one dimension: c = sum_i a_i * b_i
If "a() * b()" contains only bad data, "c()" is set bad. Otherwise "c()" will have its bad flag cleared, as it will not contain any bad values.
outer: Signature: (a(n); b(m); [o]c(n,m))
outer product over one dimension
Naturally, it is possible to achieve the effects of outer product simply by threading over the ""*"" operator but this function is provided for convenience.
outer does handle bad values. It will set the bad-value flag of all output piddles if the flag is set for any of the input piddles.
x: Signature: (a(i,x), b(z,i),[o]c(x,z))
Matrix multiplication
PDL overloads the "x" operator (normally the repeat operator) for matrix multiplication. The number of columns (size of the 0 dimension) in the left-hand argument must normally equal the number of rows (size of the 1 dimension) in the right-hand argument.
Row vectors are represented as (N x 1) two-dimensional PDLs, or you may be sloppy and use a one-dimensional PDL. Column vectors are represented as (1 x N) two-dimensional PDLs.
Threading occurs in the usual way, but as both the 0 and 1 dimension (if present) are included in the operation, you must be sure that you don't try to thread over either of those dims.
EXAMPLES
Here are some simple ways to define vectors and matrices:: pdl> $r = pdl(1,2); # A row vector
pdl> $c = pdl([[3],[4]]); # A column vector
pdl> $c = pdl(3,4)->(*1); # A column vector, using NiceSlice pdl> $m = pdl([[1,2],[3,4]]); # A 2x2 matrix
Now that we have a few objects prepared, here is how to matrix-multiply them:: pdl> print $r x $m # row x matrix = row
[
[ 7 10]; ]; pdl> print $m x $r # matrix x row = ERROR
PDL: Dim mismatch in matmult of [2x2] x [2x1]: 2 != 1; pdl> print $m x $c # matrix x column = column
[
[ 5]
[11]; ]; pdl> print $m x 2 # Trivial case: scalar mult.
[
[2 4]
[6 8]; ]; pdl> print $r x $c # row x column = scalar
[
[11]; ]; pdl> print $c x $r # column x row = matrix
[
[3 6]
[4 8]; ]
INTERNALS
The mechanics of the multiplication are carried out by the matmult method.
matmult: Signature: (a(t,h); b(w,t); [o]c(w,h))
Matrix multiplication
Notionally, matrix multiplication $a x $b is equivalent to the threading expression: $a->dummy(1)->inner($b->xchg(0,1)->dummy(2),$c);
but for large matrices that breaks CPU cache and is slow. Instead, matmult calculates its result in 32x32x32 tiles, to keep the memory footprint within cache as long as possible on most modern CPUs.
For usage, see x, a description of the overloaded 'x' operator
matmult ignores the bad-value flag of the input piddles. It will set the bad-value flag of all output piddles if the flag is set for any of the input piddles.
innerwt: Signature: (a(n); b(n); c(n); [o]d())
Weighted (i.e. triple) inner product: d = sum_i a(i) b(i) c(i)
innerwt does handle bad values. It will set the bad-value flag of all output piddles if the flag is set for any of the input piddles.
inner2: Signature: (a(n); b(n,m); c(m); [o]d())
Inner product of two vectors and a matrix: d = sum_ij a(i) b(i,j) c(j)
Note that you should probably not thread over "a" and "c" since that would be very wasteful. Instead, you should use a temporary for "b*c".
inner2 does handle bad values. It will set the bad-value flag of all output piddles if the flag is set for any of the input piddles.
inner2d: Signature: (a(n,m); b(n,m); [o]c())
Inner product over 2 dimensions.
Equivalent to: $c = inner($a->clump(2), $b->clump(2))
inner2d does handle bad values. It will set the bad-value flag of all output piddles if the flag is set for any of the input piddles.
inner2t: Signature: (a(j,n); b(n,m); c(m,k); [t]tmp(n,k); [o]d(j,k)))
Efficient Triple matrix product "a*b*c"
Efficiency comes from by using the temporary "tmp". This operation only scales as "N**3" whereas threading using inner2 would scale as "N**4".
The reason for having this routine is that you do not need to have the same thread-dimensions for "tmp" as for the other arguments, which in case of large numbers of matrices makes this much more memoryefficient.
It is hoped that things like this could be taken care of as a kind of closures at some point.
inner2t does handle bad values. It will set the bad-value flag of all output piddles if the flag is set for any of the input piddles.
crossp: Signature: (a(tri=3); b(tri); [o] c(tri))
Cross product of two 3D vectors
After: $c = crossp $a, $b
the inner product "$c*$a" and "$c*$b" will be zero, i.e. $c is orthogonal to $a and $b
crossp does not process bad values. It will set the bad-value flag of all output piddles if the flag is set for any of the input piddles.
norm: Signature: (vec(n); [o] norm(n))
Normalises a vector to unit Euclidean length
norm does handle bad values. It will set the bad-value flag of all output piddles if the flag is set for any of the input piddles.
indadd: Signature: (a(); int ind(); [o] sum(m))
Threaded Index Add: Add "a" to the "ind" element of "sum", i.e:: sum(ind) += a
Simple Example:: $a = 2;
$ind = 3;
$sum = zeroes(10);
indadd($a,$ind, $sum);
print $sum
#Result: ( 2 added to element 3 of $sum)
# [0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0]
Threaded Example:: $a = pdl( 1,2,3);
$ind = pdl( 1,4,6);
$sum = zeroes(10);
indadd($a,$ind, $sum);
print $sum."\n";
#Result: ( 1, 2, and 3 added to elements 1,4,6 $sum)
# [0 1 0 0 2 0 3 0 0 0]
The routine barfs if any of the indices are bad.
conv1d: Signature: (a(m); kern(p); [o]b(m); int reflect)
1D convolution along first dimension
The m-th element of the discrete convolution of an input piddle $a of size $M, and a kernel piddle $kern of size $P, is calculated as: n = ($P-1)/2
====
\
($a conv1d $kern)[m] = > $a_ext[m - n] * $kern[n]: /
====
n = -($P-1)/2
where $a_ext is either the periodic (or reflected) extension of $a so it is equal to $a on " 0..$M-1 " and equal to the corresponding periodic/reflected image of $a outside that range.: $con = conv1d sequence(10), pdl(-1,0,1);; $con = conv1d sequence(10), pdl(-1,0,1), {Boundary => 'reflect'};
By default, periodic boundary conditions are assumed (i.e. wrap around). Alternatively, you can request reflective boundary conditions using the "Boundary" option:: {Boundary => 'reflect'} # case in 'reflect' doesn't matter
The convolution is performed along the first dimension. To apply it across another dimension use the slicing routines, e.g.: $b = $a->mv(2,0)->conv1d($kernel)->mv(0,2); # along third dim
This function is useful for threaded filtering of 1D signals.
Compare also conv2d, convolve, fftconvolve, fftwconv, rfftwconv
conv1d does not process bad values. It will set the bad-value flag of all output piddles if the flag is set for any of the input piddles.
in: Signature: (a(); b(n); [o] c())
test if a is in the set of values b: $goodmsk = $labels->in($goodlabels);
print pdl(4,3,1)->in(pdl(2,3,3));
[0 1 0]
"in" is akin to the is an element of of set theory. In priciple, PDL threading could be used to achieve its functionality by using a construct like: $msk = ($labels->dummy(0) == $goodlabels)->orover;
However, "in" doesn't create a (potentially large) intermediate and is generally faster.
in does not process bad values. It will set the bad-value flag of all output piddles if the flag is set for any of the input piddles.
uniq: return all unique elements of a piddle; The unique elements are returned in ascending order.

PDL> p pdl(2,2,2,4,0,-1,6,6)->uniq
[-1 0 2 4 6] # 0 is returned 2nd (sorted order)

PDL> p pdl(2,2,2,4,nan,-1,6,6)->uniq
[-1 2 4 6 nan] # NaN value is returned at end; Note: The returned pdl is 1D; any structure of the input piddle is
lost. "NaN" values are never compare equal to any other values, even
themselves. As a result, they are always unique. "uniq" returns the
NaN values at the end of the result piddle. This follows the Matlab
usage.; See uniqind if you need the indices of the unique elements rather than the values.; Bad values are not considered unique by uniq and are ignored.

$a=sequence(10);
$a=$a->setbadif($a%3);
print $a->uniq;
[0 3 6 9]
uniqind: Return the indices of all unique elements of a piddle The order is in
the order of the values to be consistent with uniq. "NaN" values never compare equal with any other value and so are always unique. This
follows the Matlab usage.

PDL> p pdl(2,2,2,4,0,-1,6,6)->uniqind
[5 4 1 3 6] # the 0 at index 4 is returned 2nd, but...

PDL> p pdl(2,2,2,4,nan,-1,6,6)->uniqind
[5 1 3 6 4] # ...the NaN at index 4 is returned at end; Note: The returned pdl is 1D; any structure of the input piddle is
lost.; See uniq if you want the unique values instead of the indices.; Bad values are not considered unique by uniqind and are ignored.
uniqvec: Return all unique vectors out of a collection

NOTE: If any vectors in the input piddle have NaN values
they are returned at the end of the non-NaN ones. This is
because, by definition, NaN values never compare equal with
any other value.

NOTE: The current implementation does not sort the vectors
containing NaN values.; The unique vectors are returned in lexicographically sorted ascending
order. The 0th dimension of the input PDL is treated as a dimensional
index within each vector, and the 1st and any higher dimensions are
taken to run across vectors. The return value is always 2D; any
structure of the input PDL (beyond using the 0th dimension for vector
index) is lost.; See also uniq for a uniqe list of scalars; and qsortvec for sorting a
list of vectors lexicographcally.; If a vector contains all bad values, it is ignored as in uniq. If some of the values are good, it is treated as a normal vector. For example, [1 2 BAD] and [BAD 2 3] could be returned, but [BAD BAD BAD] could not. Vectors containing BAD values will be returned after any non-NaN and
non-BAD containing vectors, followed by the NaN vectors.
hclip: Signature: (a(); b(); [o] c())
clip (threshold) $a by $b ($b is upper bound)
hclip does handle bad values. It will set the bad-value flag of all output piddles if the flag is set for any of the input piddles.
lclip: Signature: (a(); b(); [o] c())
clip (threshold) $a by $b ($b is lower bound)
lclip does handle bad values. It will set the bad-value flag of all output piddles if the flag is set for any of the input piddles.
clip: Clip (threshold) a piddle by (optional) upper or lower bounds.

$b = $a->clip(0,3);
$c = $a->clip(undef, $x);; clip handles bad values since it is just a wrapper around hclip and
lclip.
wtstat: Signature: (a(n); wt(n); avg(); [o]b(); int deg)
Weighted statistical moment of given degree
This calculates a weighted statistic over the vector "a". The formula is: b() = (sum_i wt_i * (a_i ** degree - avg)) / (sum_i wt_i)
Bad values are ignored in any calculation; $b will only have its bad flag set if the output contains any bad data.
statsover: Signature: (a(n); w(n); float+ [o]avg(); float+ [o]prms(); int+ [o]median(); int+ [o]min(); int+ [o]max(); float+ [o]adev(); float+ [o]rms())
Calculate useful statistics over a dimension of a piddle: ($mean,$prms,$median,$min,$max,$adev,$rms) = statsover($piddle, $weights);
This utility function calculates various useful quantities of a piddle. These are:
o the mean:: MEAN = sum (x)/ N
with "N" being the number of elements in x
o RMS deviation from the mean:: RMS = sqrt(sum( (x-mean(x))^2 )/N)
(also known as the root-mean-square deviation, or the square root of the variance)
o the median: The median is the 50th percentile data value. Median is found by
medover, so WEIGHTING IS IGNORED FOR THE MEDIAN CALCULATION.
o the minimum
o the maximum
o the absolute deviation:: ADEV = sqrt(sum( abs(x-mean(x)) )/N)
(This is also called the standard deviation)
o the population RMS deviation from the mean:: PRMS = sqrt( sum( (x-mean(x))^2 )/(N-1)
The population deviation is the best-estimate of the deviation of the population from which a sample is drawn.
This operator is a projection operator so the calculation will take place over the final dimension. Thus if the input is N-dimensional each returned value will be N-1 dimensional, to calculate the statistics for the entire piddle either use "clump(-1)" directly on the piddle or call "stats".
Bad values are simply ignored in the calculation, effectively reducing the sample size. If all data are bad then the output data are marked bad.
stats: Calculates useful statistics on a piddle

($mean,$prms,$median,$min,$max,$adev,$rms) = stats($piddle,[$weights]);; This utility calculates all the most useful quantities in one call. It works the same way as "statsover", except that the quantities are
calculated considering the entire input PDL as a single sample, rather than as a collection of rows. See "statsover" for definitions of the
returned quantities.; Bad values are handled; if all input values are bad, then all of the
output values are flagged bad.
histogram: Signature: (in(n); int+[o] hist(m); double step; double min; int msize => m)
Calculates a histogram for given stepsize and minimum.: $h = histogram($data, $step, $min, $numbins);
$hist = zeroes $numbins; # Put histogram in existing piddle.
histogram($data, $hist, $step, $min, $numbins);
The histogram will contain $numbins bins starting from $min, each $step wide. The value in each bin is the number of values in $data that lie within the bin limits.
Data below the lower limit is put in the first bin, and data above the upper limit is put in the last bin.
The output is reset in a different threadloop so that you can take a histogram of "$a(10,12)" into "$b(15)" and get the result you want.
For a higher-level interface, see hist.: pdl> p histogram(pdl(1,1,2),1,0,3)
[0 2 1]
histogram does handle bad values. It will set the bad-value flag of all output piddles if the flag is set for any of the input piddles.
whistogram: Signature: (in(n); float+ wt(n);float+[o] hist(m); double step; double min; int msize => m)
Calculates a histogram from weighted data for given stepsize and minimum.: $h = whistogram($data, $weights, $step, $min, $numbins);
$hist = zeroes $numbins; # Put histogram in existing piddle.
whistogram($data, $weights, $hist, $step, $min, $numbins);
The histogram will contain $numbins bins starting from $min, each $step wide. The value in each bin is the sum of the values in $weights that correspond to values in $data that lie within the bin limits.
Data below the lower limit is put in the first bin, and data above the upper limit is put in the last bin.
The output is reset in a different threadloop so that you can take a histogram of "$a(10,12)" into "$b(15)" and get the result you want.: pdl> p whistogram(pdl(1,1,2), pdl(0.1,0.1,0.5), 1, 0, 4)
[0 0.2 0.5 0]
whistogram does handle bad values. It will set the bad-value flag of all output piddles if the flag is set for any of the input piddles.
histogram2d: Signature: (ina(n); inb(n); int+[o] hist(ma,mb); double stepa; double mina; int masize => ma;
double stepb; double minb; int mbsize => mb;)
Calculates a 2d histogram.: $h = histogram2d($datax, $datay, $stepx, $minx,
$nbinx, $stepy, $miny, $nbiny);; $hist = zeroes $nbinx, $nbiny; # Put histogram in existing piddle.
histogram2d($datax, $datay, $hist, $stepx, $minx,
$nbinx, $stepy, $miny, $nbiny);; The histogram will contain $nbinx x $nbiny bins, with the lower limits of the first one at "($minx, $miny)", and with bin size "($stepx,
$stepy)". The value in each bin is the number of values in $datax and $datay that lie within the bin limits.; Data below the lower limit is put in the first bin, and data above the upper limit is put in the last bin.

pdl> p histogram2d(pdl(1,1,1,2,2),pdl(2,1,1,1,1),1,0,3,1,0,3)
[
[0 0 0]
[0 2 2]
[0 1 0]

]; histogram2d does handle bad values. It will set the bad-value flag of all output piddles if the flag is set for any of the input piddles.
whistogram2d: Signature: (ina(n); inb(n); float+ wt(n);float+[o] hist(ma,mb); double stepa; double mina; int masize => ma;
double stepb; double minb; int mbsize => mb;)
Calculates a 2d histogram from weighted data.: $h = whistogram2d($datax, $datay, $weights,
$stepx, $minx, $nbinx, $stepy, $miny, $nbiny);; $hist = zeroes $nbinx, $nbiny; # Put histogram in existing piddle.
whistogram2d($datax, $datay, $weights, $hist,
$stepx, $minx, $nbinx, $stepy, $miny, $nbiny);; The histogram will contain $nbinx x $nbiny bins, with the lower limits of the first one at "($minx, $miny)", and with bin size "($stepx,
$stepy)". The value in each bin is the sum of the values in $weights
that correspond to values in $datax and $datay that lie within the bin limits.; Data below the lower limit is put in the first bin, and data above the upper limit is put in the last bin.

pdl> p whistogram2d(pdl(1,1,1,2,2),pdl(2,1,1,1,1),pdl(0.1,0.2,0.3,0.4,0.5),1,0,3,1,0,3) [
[ 0 0 0]
[ 0 0.5 0.9]
[ 0 0.1 0]

]; whistogram2d does handle bad values. It will set the bad-value flag of all output piddles if the flag is set for any of the input piddles.
fibonacci: Signature: ([o]x(n))
Constructor - a vector with Fibonacci's sequence
fibonacci does not process bad values. It will set the bad-value flag of all output piddles if the flag is set for any of the input piddles.
append: Signature: (a(n); b(m); [o] c(mn))
append two or more piddles by concatenating along their first dimensions: $a = ones(2,4,7);
$b = sequence 5;
$c = $a->append($b); # size of $c is now (7,4,7) (a jumbo-piddle ;)
"append" appends two piddles along their first dims. Rest of the dimensions must be compatible in the threading sense. Resulting size of first dim is the sum of the sizes of the first dims of the two argument piddles - ie "n + m".
Similar functions include glue (below) and cat.
append does not process bad values. It will set the bad-value flag of all output piddles if the flag is set for any of the input piddles.
glue: $c = $a->glue(<dim>,$b,...)
Glue two or more PDLs together along an arbitrary dimension (N-D append).
Sticks $a, $b, and all following arguments together along the specified dimension. All other dimensions must be compatible in the threading sense.
Glue is permissive, in the sense that every PDL is treated as having an infinite number of trivial dimensions of order 1 -- so "$a->glue(3,$b)" works, even if $a and $b are only one dimensional.
If one of the PDLs has no elements, it is ignored. Likewise, if one of them is actually the undefined value, it is treated as if it had no elements.
If the first parameter is a defined perl scalar rather than a pdl, then it is taken as a dimension along which to glue everything else, so you can say "$cube = PDL::glue(3,@image_list);" if you like.
"glue" is implemented in pdl, using a combination of xchg and append. It should probably be updated (one day) to a pure PP function.
Similar functions include append (above) and cat.
axisvalues: Signature: ([o,nc]a(n))
Internal routine
"axisvalues" is the internal primitive that implements axisvals and alters its argument.
axisvalues does not process bad values. It will set the bad-value flag of all output piddles if the flag is set for any of the input piddles.
random: Constructor which returns piddle of random numbers

$a = random([type], $nx, $ny, $nz,...);
$a = random $b;; etc (see zeroes).; This is the uniform distribution between 0 and 1 (assumedly excluding 1 itself). The arguments are the same as "zeroes" (q.v.) - i.e. one can
specify dimensions, types or give a template.; You can use the perl function srand to seed the random generator. For
further details consult Perl's srand documentation.
randsym: Constructor which returns piddle of random numbers

$a = randsym([type], $nx, $ny, $nz,...);
$a = randsym $b;; etc (see zeroes).; This is the uniform distribution between 0 and 1 (excluding both 0 and 1, cf random). The arguments are the same as "zeroes" (q.v.) - i.e. one can specify dimensions, types or give a template.; You can use the perl function srand to seed the random generator. For
further details consult Perl's srand documentation.
grandom: Constructor which returns piddle of Gaussian random numbers

$a = grandom([type], $nx, $ny, $nz,...);
$a = grandom $b;; etc (see zeroes).; This is generated using the math library routine "ndtri".; Mean = 0, Stddev = 1; You can use the perl function srand to seed the random generator. For
further details consult Perl's srand documentation.
vsearch: Signature: (i(); x(n); int [o]ip())
routine for searching 1D values i.e. step-function interpolation.: $inds = vsearch($vals, $xs);
Returns for each value of $vals the index of the least larger member of $xs (which need to be in increasing order). If the value is larger than any member of $xs, the index to the last element of $xs is returned.
This function is useful e.g. when you have a list of probabilities for events and want to generate indices to events:: $a = pdl(.01,.86,.93,1); # Barnsley IFS probabilities cumulatively
$b = random 20;
$c = vsearch($b, $a); # Now, $c will have the appropriate distr.
It is possible to use the cumusumover function to obtain cumulative probabilities from absolute probabilities.
needs major (?) work to handles bad values
interpolate: Signature: (xi(); x(n); y(n); [o] yi(); int [o] err())
routine for 1D linear interpolation: ( $yi, $err ) = interpolate($xi, $x, $y)
Given a set of points "($x,$y)", use linear interpolation to find the values $yi at a set of points $xi.
"interpolate" uses a binary search to find the suspects, er..., interpolation indices and therefore abscissas (ie $x) have to be strictly ordered (increasing or decreasing). For interpolation at lots of closely spaced abscissas an approach that uses the last index found as a start for the next search can be faster (compare Numerical Recipes "hunt" routine). Feel free to implement that on top of the binary search if you like. For out of bounds values it just does a linear extrapolation and sets the corresponding element of $err to 1, which is otherwise 0.
See also interpol, which uses the same routine, differing only in the handling of extrapolation - an error message is printed rather than returning an error piddle.
needs major (?) work to handles bad values
interpol: Signature: (xi(); x(n); y(n); [o] yi())
routine for 1D linear interpolation: $yi = interpol($xi, $x, $y)
"interpol" uses the same search method as interpolate, hence $x must be strictly ordered (either increasing or decreasing). The difference occurs in the handling of out-of-bounds values; here an error message is printed.
interpND: Interpolate values from an N-D piddle, with switchable method

$source = 10*xvals(10,10) + yvals(10,10);
$index = pdl([[2.2,3.5],[4.1,5.0]],[[6.0,7.4],[8,9]]);
print $source->interpND( $index );; InterpND acts like indexND, collapsing $index by lookup into $source;
but it does interpolation rather than direct sampling. The
interpolation method and boundary condition are switchable via an
options hash.; By default, linear or sample interpolation is used, with constant value outside the boundaries of the source pdl. No dataflow occurs, because in general the output is computed rather than indexed.; All the interpolation methods treat the pixels as value-centered, so
the "sample" method will return "$a->(0)" for coordinate values on the set [-0.5,0.5), and all methods will return "$a->(1)" for a coordinate value of exactly 1.; Recognized options:; method
Values can be:

o 0, s, sample, Sample (default for integer source types)

The nearest value is taken. Pixels are regarded as centered on
their respective integer coordinates (no offset from the linear
case).

o 1, l, linear, Linear (default for floating point source types)

The values are N-linearly interpolated from an N-dimensional cube of size 2.

o 3, c, cube, cubic, Cubic

The values are interpolated using a local cubic fit to the data. The fit is constrained to match the original data and its
derivative at the data points. The second derivative of the fit is not continuous at the data points. Multidimensional datasets are interpolated by the successive-collapse method.

(Note that the constraint on the first derivative causes a small amount of ringing around sudden features such as step functions).

o f, fft, fourier, Fourier

The source is Fourier transformed, and the interpolated values
are explicitly calculated from the coefficients. The boundary
condition option is ignored -- periodic boundaries are imposed.

If you pass in the option "fft", and it is a list (ARRAY) ref,
then it is a stash for the magnitude and phase of the source FFT. If the list has two elements then they are taken as already
computed; otherwise they are calculated and put in the stash.

b, bound, boundary, Boundary

This option is passed unmodified into indexND, which is used as the indexing engine for the interpolation. Some current allowed values are 'extend', 'periodic', 'truncate', and 'mirror' (default is
'truncate').

bad

contains the fill value used for 'truncate' boundary. (default 0)

fft

An array ref whose associated list is used to stash the FFT of the
source data, for the FFT method.
one2nd: Converts a one dimensional index piddle to a set of ND coordinates

@coords=one2nd($a, $indices); returns an array of piddles containing the ND indexes corresponding to the one dimensional list indices. The indices are assumed to correspond to array $a clumped using "clump(-1)". This routine is used in whichND, but is useful on its own occasionally.

pdl> $a=pdl [[[1,2],[-1,1]], [[0,-3],[3,2]]]; $c=$a->clump(-1)
pdl> $maxind=maximum_ind($c); p $maxind;
6
pdl> print one2nd($a, maximum_ind($c))
0 1 1
pdl> p $a->at(0,1,1)
3
which: Signature: (mask(n); int [o] inds(m))
Returns indices of non-zero values from a 1-D PDL: $i = which($mask);
returns a pdl with indices for all those elements that are nonzero in the mask. Note that the returned indices will be 1D. If you feed in a multidimensional mask, it will be flattened before the indices are calculated. See also whichND for multidimensional masks.
If you want to index into the original mask or a similar piddle with output from "which", remember to flatten it before calling index:: $data = random 5, 5;
$idx = which $data > 0.5; # $idx is now 1D
$bigsum = $data->flat->index($idx)->sum; # flatten before indexing
Compare also where for similar functionality.
SEE ALSO:
which_both returns separately the indices of both zero and nonzero values in the mask.
where returns associated values from a data PDL, rather than indices into the mask PDL.
whichND returns N-D indices into a multidimensional PDL.: pdl> $x = sequence(10); p $x
[0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9]
pdl> $indx = which($x>6); p $indx
[7 8 9]
which does handle bad values. It will set the bad-value flag of all output piddles if the flag is set for any of the input piddles.
which_both: Signature: (mask(n); int [o] inds(m); int [o]notinds(q))
Returns indices of zero and nonzero values in a mask PDL: ($i, $c_i) = which_both($mask);
This works just as which, but the complement of $i will be in $c_i.: pdl> $x = sequence(10); p $x
[0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9]
pdl> ($small, $big) = which_both ($x >= 5); p "$small\n $big"
[5 6 7 8 9]
[0 1 2 3 4]
which_both does handle bad values. It will set the bad-value flag of all output piddles if the flag is set for any of the input piddles.
where: Use a mask to select values from one or more data PDLs; "where" accepts one or more data piddles and a mask piddle. It returns a list of output piddles, corresponding to the input data piddles.
Each output piddle is a 1-dimensional list of values in its
corresponding data piddle. The values are drawn from locations where
the mask is nonzero.; The output PDLs are still connected to the original data PDLs, for the purpose of dataflow.; "where" combines the functionality of which and index into a single
operation.; BUGS:; There is no "whereND", and probably should be. While "where" works OK for most N-dimensional cases, it does not thread properly over (for
example) the (N+1)th dimension in data that is compared to an
N-dimensional mask.

$i = $x->where($x+5 > 0); # $i contains those elements of $x
# where mask ($x+5 > 0) is 1

$i .= -5; # Set those elements (of $x) to -5. Together, these

# commands clamp $x to a maximum of -5.
It is also possible to use the same mask for several piddles with the same call:: ($i,$j,$k) = where($x,$y,$z, $x+5>0);
Note: $i is always 1-D, even if $x is >1-D.
WARNING: The first argument (the values) and the second argument (the mask) currently have to have the exact same dimensions (or horrible things happen). You *cannot* thread over a smaller mask, for example.
whichND: Return the coordinates of non-zero values in a mask.; WhichND returns the N-dimensional coordinates of each nonzero value in a mask PDL with any number of dimensions.; For historical reasons the return value is different in list and scalar context. In scalar context, you get back a PDL containing coordinates suitable for use in indexND or range; in list context, the coordinates are broken out into separate PDLs.

$coords = whichND($mask);; returns a PDL containing the coordinates of the elements that are nonzero in $mask, suitable for use in indexND. The 0th dimension contains the full coordinate listing of each point; the 1st dimension lists all the points. For example, if $mask has rank 4 and 100 matching
elements, then $coords has dimension 4x100.

@coords=whichND($mask);; returns a perl list of piddles containing the coordinates of the
elements that are non-zero in $mask. Each element corresponds to a
particular index dimension. For example, if $mask has rank 4 and 100
matching elements, then @coords has 4 elements, each of which is a pdl of size 100.; SEE ALSO:; which finds coordinates of nonzero values in a 1-D mask.; where extracts values from a data PDL that are associated with nonzero values in a mask PDL.

pdl> $a=sequence(10,10,3,4)
pdl> ($x, $y, $z, $w)=whichND($a == 203); p $x, $y, $z, $w
[3] [0] [2] [0]
pdl> print $a->at(list(cat($x,$y,$z,$w)))
203
setops: Implements simple set operations like union and intersection

Usage: $set = setops($a, <OPERATOR>, $b);; The operator can be "OR", "XOR" or "AND". This is then applied to $a
viewed as a set and $b viewed as a set. Set theory says that a set may not have two or more identical elements, but setops takes care of this for you, so "$a=pdl(1,1,2)" is OK. The functioning is as follows:; "OR"
The resulting vector will contain the elements that are either in
$a or in $b or both. This is the union in set operation terms; "XOR"
The resulting vector will contain the elements that are either in
$a or $b, but not in both. This is

Union($a, $b) - Intersection($a, $b)

in set operation terms.; "AND"
The resulting vector will contain the intersection of $a and $b, so the elements that are in both $a and $b. Note that for convenience this operation is also aliased to intersect; It should be emphasized that these routines are used when one or both
of the sets $a, $b are hard to calculate or that you get from a
separate subroutine.; Finally IDL users might be familiar with Craig Markwardt's
"cmset_op.pro" routine which has inspired this routine although it was written independently However the present routine has a few less
options (but see the exampels); You will very often use these functions on an index vector, so that is what we will show here. We will in fact something slightly silly. First we will find all squares that are also cubes below 10000.; Create a sequence vector:

pdl> $x = sequence(10000); Find all odd and even elements:

pdl> ($even, $odd) = which_both( ($x % 2) == 0); Find all squares

pdl> $squares= which(ceil(sqrt($x)) == floor(sqrt($x))); Find all cubes (being careful with roundoff error!)

pdl> $cubes= which(ceil($x**(1.0/3.0)) == floor($x**(1.0/3.0)+1e-6)); Then find all squares that are cubes:

pdl> $both = setops($squares, 'AND', $cubes); And print these (assumes that "PDL::NiceSlice" is loaded!)

pdl> p $x($both)
[0 1 64 729 4096]

Then find all numbers that are either cubes or squares, but not both:

pdl> $cube_xor_square = setops($squares, 'XOR', $cubes)

pdl> p $cube_xor_square->nelem()
112

So there are a total of 112 of these!

Finally find all odd squares:

pdl> $odd_squares = setops($squares, 'AND', $odd)

Another common occurance is to want to get all objects that are in $a
and in the complement of $b. But it is almost always best to create the complement explicitly since the universe that both are taken from is
not known. Thus use which_both if possible to keep track of
complements.

If this is impossible the best approach is to make a temporary:

This creates an index vector the size of the universe of the sets and
set all elements in $b to 0

pdl> $tmp = ones($n_universe); $tmp($b)=0;

This then finds the complement of $b

pdl> $C_b = which($tmp == 1);

and this does the final selection:

pdl> $set = setops($a, 'AND', $C_b)
intersect: Calculate the intersection of two piddles

Usage: $set = intersect($a, $b);; This routine is merely a simple interface to setops. See that for more information; Find all numbers less that 100 that are of the form 2*y and 3*x

pdl> $x=sequence(100)
pdl> $factor2 = which( ($x % 2) == 0)
pdl> $factor3 = which( ($x % 3) == 0)
pdl> $ii=intersect($factor2, $factor3)
pdl> p $x($ii)
[0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 84 90 96]

AUTHOR

Copyright (C) Tuomas J. Lukka 1997 (lukka@husc.harvard.edu).
Contributions by Christian Soeller (c.soeller@auckland.ac.nz), Karl
Glazebrook (kgb@aaoepp.aao.gov.au), Craig DeForest
(deforest@boulder.swri.edu) and Jarle Brinchmann (jarle@astro.up.pt)
All rights reserved. There is no warranty. You are allowed to
redistribute this software / documentation under certain conditions.
For details, see the file COPYING in the PDL distribution. If this file is separated from the PDL distribution, the copyright notice should be included in the file.

Updated for CPAN viewing compatibility by David Mertens.

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